Introduction
The International cross-border movements of people have many forms in the contemporary world. On the basis of time-period of stay at destination country, it can be categorized as temporary migration and permanent migration. On the basis of purpose of cross-border movement, it can be categorized as international tourism, international labour migration, and international student mobility etc. These categories can not be defined in isolation from each other and are mutually inclusive. For example, transnational communities of a country which are formed on the basis of widespread emigrants, also play an important role for the promotion of international tourism. Similarly, the short term labour migration have a strong connection with permanent migration. As the distinction between permanent and temporary channels of migration blurs, because some of the major immigrant nations provides permanent residency easily to those immigrants who have entered through any temporary programme (Skeldon, 2013). There is also an emerging association between the international student mobility and permanent migration, which is barely discussed in migration studies. UNESCO (n.d.) defines internationally mobile student as “an individual who has physically crossed the international border between two countries with the objective to participate in educational activities in a destination country, where the destination country is different from his or her country of origin.” The following part of the given article deals with the different perspectives related with international student mobility.
The International Student Mobility and Enforcement of GATS
In the last quarter of twentieth century, the politico-economic world order has been transformed from state managed economic system to the market oriented economic system. The international trade and capital flows are liberalised, the role of nation states also redefined from a commanding entity to a indicative one, and the global economy experienced a new level of integration in terms of trade and capital flows. In this context to facilitate and to manage the international trade of services, the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) entered into force in January 1995. All WTO (World Trade Organisation) members are at the same time became members of the GATS. The GATS distinguishes between four modes of supplying of services: cross-border trade, consumption abroad, commercial presence, and presence of natural persons. The general framework of GATS also applied on the international trade of educational services. The commercialisation of higher education at the global level after the enforcement of GATS gave birth to the international student mobility at larger scale which falls under the consumption abroad mode of trade in services. If the cross-border movement of students for higher education between the countries of European Union (EU) is ignored1 deliberately, then Australia and Canada, both are the English language spoken countries, are the two countries that becomeglobal hubs in case of enrollment of international students in higher education (OECD, 2018). Furthermore, good band scores in International English Language Testing System (IELTS) becomes a necessary requirement to get admission in any college of the given two countries. The integration of international student mobility with the labour market of destination country makes it economically viable for the internationally mobile students.
Integration between International Student Mobility and Labour Market of Destination Country
The immigration policies of advanced countries has got changed in the previous decades. The permanent immigration policies of the traditional countries of immigration including The United States of America (USA), Canada, and Australia have turned into temporary and non-migrant programmes (Skeldon, 2013). Global trends of international student mobility makes it clear that student flows originated from developing world towards the traditional countries of immigration. Therefore, as the immigration policies change the route of labour migration from developing world to the advanced countries also changed from permanent migration to the temporary migration through international student mobility. The integration of labour market of destination countries through an opportunity to get post-study work permit, and to access the labour market as a part-time worker during the study program are strong economic drivers of the flows of students from developing world towards the advanced countries. Along with this, the immigration policies of advanced countries, provides an opportunity to the spouse of the student to get work permit directly. In the real sense, the international student mobility embodied with the labour flows from the developing world towards the advanced countries. Furthermore, after the completion of post-study work permit, the possibility to get permanent residency of the destination country also increases, as the policies to provide permanent residence are favourable for those migrants who are already on temporary work permit. Therefore, this will not be erroneous to describe the international student mobility as a new emerging route for emigration.
Economic Consequences of International Student Mobility for the Area of Origin
One of the positive economic consequences of the international migration for the area of origin is the remittances from migrants (Nayyar, 2018). Remittance flows may also increase the level of national income through its multiplier effect. But the given route of international student mobility is different from direct international labour migration. It leads to the direct outflow of economic resources in terms of educational expenses of the student. For the developing economy, due to exchange rate differentials, it becomes more costly to pay the fees in terms of the currency of destination countries whose currencies attains higher value in exchange rate market relative to the currencies of origin countries. The leakage of income in terms of educational expenses adversely affects the level of economic growth in the destination country. The evidences from Indian Punjab where the incidence of migration through international student mobility is at its peak shows the similar negative economic consequences for Punjab Economy. In 2018, approximately 1.5 lakh youth go abroad through study visas from Punjab along with outflow of Rs. 27,000 crore in terms of their educational expenses (Kaur, 2018).
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 10.7.1 deals with the reducing of recruitment cost in terms of percentage of yearly income earned in country of destination. The low cost of recruitment leads to the large flows of remittances and enhances the level of development in area of origin. Because of the least availability of the work permit for the workers of developing countries to get direct recruitment for work in advanced countries, they have to choose the costlier route of international student mobility to get work permit after completing the study program. Indirectly the educational expenses act as a recruitment cost, because it also adversely affect the remittances flows. Therefore the international student mobility also contradicts with the goal of SDG10.7.1, when it is analysed from the perspective of a new form of international labour migration.
Conclusion
There is no doubt that liberalisation of trade in educational services opens up new avenues for the citizens of developing countries to enhance the human capital endowments. Along with this, the international student mobility has also emerged as a new route of international labour migration as the immigration policies of advanced countries that have become global hubs of educational services integrate it with the labour migration. But, it has negative impacts for area of origin due to the outflow of resources in terms of educational expenses, in terms of leakage of multiplier and also in terms of deficit in balance of trade. Furthermore, the dynamics of international student mobility also demands in-depth researches to theorise the different perspectives associated with international student mobility.
- Since the cross-border movement within the member countries of EU is not restricted.
References
Kaur,D. (2018, July 28). Cost of foreign dreams for parents in Punjab: Rs 27,000 cr. The Tribune. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/punjab/cost-of-foreign-dreams-for-parents-in-punjab-rs-27-000-cr-628584
Nayyar, D. (2008). International migration and economic development. Narcis Serra & Joseph E Stiglitz (Eds) the Washington Consensus reconsidered. Towards a New Global Governance, 277-305.
OECD (2016). http://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/international-or-internationally-mobile-students
OECD (2021), International student mobility (indicator). doi: 10.1787/4bcf6fc3-en (Accessed on 10 September 2021)
Skeldon, R. (2013). Global Migration: Demographic Aspects and Its Relevance for Development. Retrieved August 06, 2019, from https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/technical/TP2013-6.pdf
UNESCO (n.d.). International (or Internationally) Mobile Student. http://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/international-or-internationally-mobile-students
Harjinder Singh has completed M.A. in Economics from the Department of Economics, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D. in Social Sciences, focusing on International Migration with a multidisciplinary approach. He has been awarded Junior Research Fellowship from University Grants Commission. His areas of interest include – Political Economy of Development, Migration and Development Studies, Globalization and Local Transformations, Agrarian Studies of the Third World, and Economic Theories. He is also fond of reading poetry and historical studies. Twitter: https://twitter.com/harjinderecon?s=03